Somalian Society and Environment
Somali society and environment are inseparable. The harsh climate and limited water supply fostered a mobile, clan-based social structure that valued kinship and pastoralism.
Somalia’s environment has always shaped the way its people live. The country is mostly flat, with broad plateaus and dry plains stretching across much of the land. Only in the far north do rugged mountains rise, reaching over 2,400 meters. Somalia’s climate is hot year-round, with little reliable rainfall. There are two short rainy seasons, from April to June and again in October and November, but these bring irregular showers, and drought is common. The Juba River in the southwest is the only river that flows year-round, while the Shabeelle River runs for only part of the year. This scarcity of water has made pastoral nomadism—herding camels, goats, and cattle—the traditional way of life for most Somalis.
The population in 1981 was estimated at just over 4 million people, following a steady rise from the 1975 census figure of 3.7 million. Most Somalis lived in rural areas: around 60 percent were nomads or semi-nomads, about 20 percent were sedentary rural farmers, and the remaining 20 percent lived in towns and cities, particularly Mogadishu, Hargeysa, and other coastal centers. Where people lived and how they moved often depended on clan ties, which determined rights to pasture, water, and land.
Somali society is famously organized through a segmentary clan system. Six major clan-families make up the Somali nation: the Dir, Darod, Hawiye, Isaaq, Digil, and Rahanweyn. Traditionally, Somalis divide themselves into two broad categories: the Samaal, who are primarily nomadic pastoralists, and the Sab, who are more sedentary, farming along the fertile river valleys of the south. Within these groups are countless clans, sub-clans, and lineages, which form the basis of political and social life. In addition to ethnic Somalis, there are small groups of non-Somali peoples in coastal and riverine areas, including Bantu farmers, Arabs, and Swahili communities. There are also specialized occupational groups, such as blacksmiths, leatherworkers, and hunters, who traditionally held a lower status in Somali society.
Despite its deeply traditional roots, Somali society has undergone gradual change. The government of Siad Barre sought to weaken the power of clans and promote a sense of national unity, though in practice clan loyalties remained strong. Urbanization and the spread of education also slowly reshaped social life, especially in the late 20th century.
Religion is central to Somali identity. Nearly all Somalis are Sunni Muslims, and Somalia is officially an Islamic state. Islam has long been a unifying factor that transcends clan divisions. Religious leaders, such as sheikhs and clerics, play important roles in local communities, providing guidance, justice, and spiritual leadership. Sufi brotherhoods like the Qadiriyya and Ahmadiyya orders are influential, and the veneration of saints and holy sites remains common. Alongside orthodox practices, “folk Islam” has persisted, with beliefs in charms, spirits, and healing rituals. While colonial and later governments sometimes restricted the political influence of religious leaders, Islam has remained a defining feature of Somali life.
Education expanded rapidly in the 1970s. Traditional Qur’anic schools had always taught children the basics of Islam, but modern schooling became more widespread under the post-independence state. A major turning point came in 1973, when Somalia adopted a Latin alphabet for writing Somali. This allowed the government to launch nationwide literacy campaigns, which greatly increased literacy rates, particularly in settled areas. However, the spread of modern education was slowed by shortages of teachers and classrooms, especially in rural and nomadic communities.
Somalia’s health system was weak and unevenly distributed. In the early 1980s, there were few doctors and hospitals, and most services were concentrated in cities. Rural and nomadic populations had little access to medical care. Malaria, tuberculosis, parasitic infections, sexually transmitted diseases, and malnutrition were widespread, and infant mortality was very high. The mobility of nomads further complicated the delivery of health services.
Adding to these difficulties was the massive refugee crisis following the Ogaden War of 1977–78. Nearly one million Somalis fled from Ethiopia into Somalia, creating an enormous humanitarian burden. Camps were set up, especially near the borders, but the influx of refugees placed tremendous strain on Somalia’s already fragile economy, health system, and food supplies.
Somali society and environment are inseparable. The harsh climate and limited water supply fostered a mobile, clan-based social structure that valued kinship and pastoralism. Islam provided a shared identity that unified the people beyond their clans. In the modern era, literacy campaigns, education reforms, and urbanization began to transform Somali life, but challenges remained: poverty, poor health services, and the massive impact of refugees. These pressures tested the resilience of Somali society, while clan traditions and Islamic values continued to anchor its identity.